
BULLETIN 

OF THE 

UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS 

1915 : No. 24 



A New Apparatus for the Enlargement 
of Phonograph Records 



By 



Karl F. Muenzinger 




Published by the University six times a month and entered 
second class matter at the postofflce at Austin. Texas. 



tj-jU' 



Publications of tlie University of Texas 

Publications Committee: 

W. J. Battlh B. C. Babkkb 

J. C. TowNES A. Caswell Ellis 

W. S. Caeter R. a. Law 

Kellis Campbell 3. A. Lomax 

P. "W. SiMONDS A. 0. JUDBON 



The University publishes bulletins six times a month. These 
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Editor of University Publications, University of Texas, Austin. 



BULLETIN 

OF THE 

UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS 

1915 : No. 24 



A New Apparatus for the Enlargement 
of Phonograph Records 

By 

Karl F. Muenzinger 




Published by the University six times a month and entered as 
second class matter at the postoffice at Austin, Texas. 






The benefits of education and of 
useful knowledge, generally diffused 
through a conununity, are essential 
to the preservation of a free gov- 
ernment. 

Sam Houston. 



Cultivated mind is the guardian 
genius of democracy. ... It is tlie 
only dictator that freemen acknowl- 
edge and the only security that fi"ee- 
men desire. 

Mirabeau B. Lamar. 



x4, 



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\ 



/\ 



PREFACE 

Amcug the devices that have been put at the service of experi- 
mental phonetics, the phonograph and gramophone are especially 
noteworthy. Their records are relatively free from the psycho- 
logical errors incumbent on most other devices; the.y have the 
widest range of application, registering simultaneously the 
acoustic effects of oral and nasal articulation, the different 
degrees of voice and sonority, strength and pitch of intonation, 
glides, quantity, etc. In addition to this, the relative indestruc- 
tibility of newer records is an invaluable asset. 

These advantages are generally admitted, and, still, experi- 
mental phonetics has thus far utilized the phonograph to a 
minor extent. The reason is obviously to be sought in the com- 
parative invisibility of the phonograph curves — the phonoghjpJi.s, 
as they are termed in this booklet. To magnify them in an 
accurate, but fairly convenient way has been recognized as a 
problem of great importance for some time. The instrument ■ 
described in the following pages has solved it iu a thoroughly 
satisfactory manner; in principle, it is complete in its present 
form ; in details, especially as to certain automatic conveniences, 
it may easily be perfected as soon as time and funds will permit. 
« » * 

The construction of the apparatus was made possible by the 
far-seeing generosity of the authorities of the University of 
Texas, to whom we are desirous to express our gratitude and 
appreciation for making a special appropriation for this im- 
portant instrument of research. The economic use of the funds 
thus granted is best characterized by the fact that the author 
of this booklet who had devised the apparatus, went so far as 
to do the major part of the manual labor himself. Thankful 
acknowledgment is due to Mr. L. H. Gruber, Mechanician of the 
School of Physics, without whose expert skill the author 's efforts 
would have been in vain. The author is also indebted to his 
University colleagues for their readiness to help and willingiieis 
to advice; practically, however, no help was received from the 
outside. 

Not only phoneticians, but psychologists and physicists as 



4 Bulletin of tlu University of Texas 

well, will clearly recognize the advantages of the new device. 
To me, however, being a philologist, its philological importance 
appeals first of all. Human ears are not sensitive enough to an- 
alyze the finer distinctions of human speech in their trixe values. 
We guess and grope in the dark and are dissatisfied with most of 
the present means of experimental investigation of speech 
sounds. The convenience of the apparatus described herein 
opens up a new, broad field of research, and it is my conviction 
that it ought to be given as wide a sphere of usefulness as 



I believe that this can be done most effectively in connection 
with a project of independent value. Scientific corporations in 
Europe are beginning to establish Phonogram Archives of the 
dialects existing within their immediate reach. The necessity 
for such a collection is even more pressing in the United States 
than in the case of European countries: Our dialects change 
more rapidly than those of Europe on account of the rapid varia- 
tions ;n the ethnic character of our populations; certain Indian 
languages, negro speech and negro song of the south, are speedily 
disintegrating; the transitory progress of immigrants' English 
jiresents problems of language mixture of great linguistic and 
psychological weight. Facts bearing on such and many other 
problems must not only be preserved by means of a National 
American Phonogram Archive, but they must also be studied 
with its help, and, partly at least, through the medium of 
phonoglyph reproductions as described in these pages. 

The first steps to establish such an archive, together with a 
reproducing bureau as an adjunct institution, have been taken. 
Their success will depend on co-operative enthusiasm. 

E. Prokosch, 
Professor of Germanic Languages in the University of Texas. 



TALKING MACHINES 

Of the various methods to obtain objective records of human 
speech, one has been developed very highly, namely, that of the 
"talking machine." As its name suggests, its purpose is pri- 
marily the reproduction of speech sounds. The principle com- 
mon to all talking machines is this: A .sharp point attached 
to a membrane which is caused to vibrate by sound waves, reg- 
isters its oscillations on a soft surface, e. g., a rotating wax 
cylindiT. This receiving surface is called the "record." An- 
other point and membrane following the groove on this record, 
will reproduce sounds similar to those that caused the first 
membrane to vibrate. We should notice here that the wave line 
on the record (this line I shall call the phanoglyph) is by no 
means a picture of the sound waves, but represents only the 
movements of the center of the membrane, damped by the re- 
sistance of the wax. Again, the reproduction of sounds from 
a record does not contain all that is engraved on it, so that as 
to exactness the phonoglyphs may be said to stand between the 
original sounds and their reproduction. Accordingly, all that 
we hear is actually contained in the phonoglyph — an obvious, 
but important fact, a.s we shall see later. 

Two kinds of talking machines are now made, the Phonograph 
and the Gramophone. Their general principle is explained 
above ; the important diflference between them is this : The writ- 
ing point of the recording membrane of the phonograph cuts a 
wave lying in a plane which is at right angles to the plane of 
the receiving surface, while the writing point of the gramophone 
moves in a plane parallel to that of the receiving surface. A 
minor difference consists in the use of revolving discs as 
records by the gramophone, and of rotating cylinders by the 
phonograph. The latest model of the phonograph, however, 
also uses discs. 

METHODS OF TRANSCRIBING AND ENLARGING 

PHONOGLYPHS 
The phonoglyph is extremely small. This fact makes its 
study with the naked eye impossible: even with the aid of a 



6 Bulletin of the Vniversiiy of Teioas 

microscope it is still a difficult task. An enlarged reproduction 
of the phonoglyph seems therefore to be indispensable to accu- 
rate study. Various kinds of apparatus for enlarging have been 
devised. It is not my intention to describe them all, but only 
to mention the typical constructions. 

Air transmission. McKendrick (Nature, 1909, April) joiued 
the sound box of one gramophone to that of another. The first 
cne played the record in the usual way; the second registered 
its vibrations on smoked glass. W. E. Peters (Vox, 1913, 2fil) 
changed this method by replacing the second sound box with 
a tambour similar to the Laryngograph of Krueger-Wirth. The 
advantages of this method are as follows: It is inexpensive; it 
does not require much skill to handle the apparatus ; the speed of 
reproduction is as fast as is desirable. (It takes as long to 
transcribe a record as to play it.) The disadvantages are two: 
First, the difficulty of reading the phonoglyphs is still very great, 
since they are only slightly magnified in the process; second, 
their correctness is very doubtful, since the errors of the sound 
box are greatly multiplied in the threefold transfer, that is, 
in being recorded, reproduced, and recorded again. 

Electric transmission. McKendrick and Peters also produced 
an apparatus in which a gramophone sound box was joined to 
a microphone. An electromagnet to whose armature a stylus 
was attached, was used as "receiver." "While the advantages 
of this method are about the same as those of the one men- 
tioned above, its disadvantages are greater, since the inaccura- 
cies of the electric transmission and of the movement of the 
armature are added to those of three vibrating membranes. 

Stiff levers. Enlargement by stifif levers seems to be the 
most simple and direct method. Moreover, by using a combina- 
tion of several levers, connected with each other, one may 
magnify to almost any degree desired. 

E. W. Scripture (Researches in Experimental Phonetics, 
Washington, 1906) has built an apparatus on this principle for 
the' enlargement of gramophone records. He used very light 
and rigid material for his levers, and jewel bearings. The long 
arm of the first lever is connected with the short arm of the 
second by a stifif rod between gimbal joints. A glass point at 
the end of the long arm of the second lever write's on smoked 



Enlargement of Fhonogniph Records 7 

paper. To the short arm of the first lever is attached the needle 
which runs in the groove on the disc. The exactness of the ap- 
paratus must be very great. Judging from the results which 
E. W. Sei'ipture obtained, I would say its only two drawbacks (so 
far as I can see) are the difficulty of its construction, and its 
low speed, one revoliition of the gramophone disc taking about 
four hours. Scripture also constructed an apparatus for the 
enlargement of phonograph records. This instrmnent has but 
one lever. Two and three levers are used by the instrument- 
maker H. Lioret, of Paris. This so-called "Lioretgraphe" is 
now employed in several laboratories: I shall describe its more 
important points below. 

Optical lever. The principle of enlarging with an optical 
lever is as follows. A small one-arm lever carrying a mirror, 
follows with its free end the groove on a record. Its move- 
ments may reflect a ray of light, which, if photographed, repre- 
sents an enlargement of the phonoglyph. Lioret has constructed 
on this principle an apparatus for enlarging phonograph rec- 
ords. However, the specimens of curves obtained with it, and 
reproduced in his catalogue, do not appear to be very satisfac- 
tory. Hermann, one of the first investigators in this field, used 
a combination of two (and later three) levers, fixing the mirror 
on the last one. His method thus is a combination of the stiff 
lever and the optical lever methods. His results seem to be 
very satisfactory (Pfluegers Archiv, vols. XLV., XLVII, LlII, 
and others.) A remarkable point of construction will be men- 
tioned below. 

DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS 

The apparatus which I constructed for the enlargement of 
phonograph records is of the type which has a combination of 
stiff Jevers. I chose the phonograph, instead of the gramo- 
phone records for the practical reason that the making of new 
phonograph records is a comparatively simple process; so that 
for certain experimental purposes I am not dependent on the 
commercial records, but can use those that contain linguistic 
material prepared by myself. In describing the apparatus I 
shall first take up the levers, and then the movements of the 
cylinder and of the writing drum. 



8 Bulletin of the University of Texas 

The lever system. The lever arrangement is shown in the 
photograph and fig. 1 at the end of this paper. Lever I, with 
the pivot a, holds the glass point or sapphire h, which follows 
the phonoglyph on the record. At point c, a rod A joints with 
lever T, connecting it with lever II at point d. The' point e is 
the pivot of lever II, whose longer arm at /' is connected by rod 
B with the shorter arm of lever III at .</. This lever, with 
pivot t, bears at the end of its longer arm the hinge i, with the 
writing arm W, leaning against the paper. 

The principle of this lever is simple, and does not contain 
anything original, except the position of the writing arm. Of 
more importance, however, are the details of construction, 
which, so far as I am able to judge, give this apparatus a su- 
periority over others built according" to the same principle. 

The three probable sources of errors in a lever system are the 
bearings, the lever connections, and the material. Special atten- 
tion has been paid to these points, as will be .?hown in the 
followmg paragraphs. 

The pivots. The crucial point of a lever is its fulcrum. It 
must possess a true axis, and as little friction as possible. Jewel 
bearings, like those iised in a watch, will serve the purpose 
well. At first I provided each lever with such a bearing (a, h, e). 
But I discovered that the adjustment was not easy. By turning 
the adjusting screw, a point where the friction was least had to 
be found, and at the same time, the center of the axis and the 
centers of the jewels were preserved in one straight line. Later 
I replaced /;, and e, with modified V-bearings (fig. 2) with this 
arrangement. No adjustment is necessary; there is always the 
same accuracy of adjustment and almo.st no friction. To reduce 
the possible errors of the bearings I decided to use long levers. 
It is plain that the movement about the fulcrmn is lessened as 
the arms of the lever are made longer. Lever I must be the 
most accurate and dependable. I therefore made the small 
arm nh 40 mm. long. 

Poiv.ts of a-p plication. Another requirement of a good lever 
of thi^ kind is that its fulcrum and the ends of its arms be in 
one straight line. Moreover, these connecting lines (fig. 1) ahc, 
def, and ghi, ought to be parallel to each other when in a 
neutral position, and the rods A and B ought then to be at 



Enlargement of Ph&nograph Records 9 

right angles to them. Take, for instance, the ends d, and /' of 
lever II (fig. 3). They move in two concentric circles around 
the pivot e, whereas they ought to move in the direction of the 
perpendiculars to df, in d and /; in that case the arcs in the 
immediate neighborhood of d and / may be said to fall together 
with the perpendiculars. 

A condition of greater importance is that the line ab be a 
tangent to the cylinder. Only in this case an exact repro- 
duction of the phonoglyphs may be expected. This precaution is 
not observed in the Lioretgraphe, where ab lies in a line which 
cuts the cylinder in two points. The result is that the reproduc- 
tion (which I shall hereafter call the phonoeurve) will he dis- 
torted. 

Shifting the record. Every apparatus with which I am ac- 
quainted contains some device for shifting the record or the 
sapphire 6, so that the latter may follow the spiral groove on 
the record. Such a device is not at all necessary. On the con- 
trary, it makes the manipulations of the apparatus more ditifi- 
cult. Oftentimes it is desirable to repeat the reproduction of 
a number of revolutions several times before going farther. In 
that ease it would be necessary to turn the instrument back until 
the sapphire reaches the point desired. To avoid this incon- 
venience, and to simplify construction, the following way has 
been pursued. The tapered drum bearing the record is not fixed 
on its shaft, but may be shifted back and forth by hand. It 
also has a key fitting into a key-way in the shaft, so that it can 
be tui'ned by the shaft. In order to allow the sapphire on the 
record to be moved in the direction of the shaft, the base of 
bearing a is not fixed, but is connected with another bearing 
whose axis is at right angles to that of a (fig. 4). By turning 
the record, the sapphire will be shifted to one side. Up to 10 
revolutions there is no noticeable error due to this side move- 
ment. The drums may be shifted then along its shaft, until the 
sapphire is again in its former position. Or, if the reproduction 
of the ten revolutions is to be repeated, the sapphire is placed 
back. In either case, the axis of the movement is a'. Since the 
distance between a' and b is rather large, 80 mm., the short 
path traveled by the sapphire falls practically together with a 
parallel to the axis of the drum, provided the lever in its neutral 



10 Bulletin of the University of Texas 

position is at right angles with the axis. The result is finally 
the same as if the drum (or the sapphire) had been shifted by 
a worm screw. 

The side movement of the sapphire will be magnified at the 
end c of lever I. Theoretically, this will change the distance 
between this point and the end d of lever II. However, if the 
connecting rod cd is taken sufficiently long — in our case it is 
450 mm. — no error can be detected coming from this source. 

Lever connection. After many experiments and failures, the 
problem of connecting the levers was solved in the following 
way, which is most simple and practical. The levers are bal- 
anced so that the ends to be connected pull in opposite direc- 
tions, i. e., c and d pull away from each other, and /" and g 
towards each other. By this arrangement they can support the 
connecting pieces between themselves. Rod A is suspended be- 
tween c and d as shown in fig. 5. The cone which represents 
the end d of lever II is of hard steel, like the conical bearing 
into which it fits. This bearing is held by an aluminum frame 
at the end of rod A. The arrangement at c is similar. Rod B 
holds the conical bearings directly at its ends as shown in fig. 
6. The advantages are that there is almost no friction, so that 
great accuracy is obtained, since one joint has but one bearing 
point. Scripture uses gimbal joints, in which one joint has four 
bearing points. 

Hermann has a uninue way of connecting his levers, that does 
not appear to be very exact. A glass rod fastened to one lever 
passes against a glass plate on the other. A serious cause of 
inaccuracy is the fact that the end of the glass rod does not 
move in the direction of a perpendicular to the lever, but in a 
circle with the center at the fulcrum of the lever. The short- 
ness of the levers makes the error from this source rather pro- 
nounced. 

Lioret uses a fork at the end of the long arm of one lever, 
which acts on a pin on the short arm of the other. Quite a 
little friction is created this way, not to mention the danger of 
lost motion. 

Material. The material of the levers must be non-bending 
and as light as possible. I have used poplar with good result. 
All parts of the lever system, with the exception of lever I, were 



Enlargement of Plionograph Records 11 

made jiTSt heavy enough to insure the necessary stiffness, since 
'very much depends on the weight of the whole system. When 
in motion, the system acquires a certain momentum, which may 
result in a motion of its own. To avoid this, the speed of the 
instrument has to be adjusted according to the weight of the 
system. It was found that with an enlargement of 1 : 300 the 
record may safely ti^rn once in 10 minutes. (The record of 
Scripture's apparatus turns once in 41/0 hours.) 

The stylus. The end i of lever III carries the stylus W, 
which also differs materially from that of other instruments. 
If the stylus were attached directly to the lever, it would move 
in a circle with the center at its fulcrum h. . The tracings would 
then contain a distortion, which would have to be taken into 
account. To preclude the necessity of this complicated correc- 
tion, another arm W, was connected by a fine watch bearing 
(later by a paper hinge) with lever III at i. This arm W, which 
is almost perpendicular to the lever, carries at its end a gold 
writing pen such as that used in a recording barometer. It leans 
against the writing drum with a very slight pressure; there- 
fore the friction of the pen writing on smooth paper 
is very small. Now, the circular movement of the end 
(' of lever HI has no intluence on the curve. Theoretically, 
an error appears, because / does not move parallel to 
the paper; but this error does not show in the tracing if 
the arm W is made sufficiently long. For the purpose of com- 
parison, smoked paper has been used on the drum, and a 
pointed piece of straw for a stylus (instead of the smooth paper 
and the gold pen). It was found that there, was no practical 
difference. Although the point of the pen is a cause of anno.v- 
ance and requires much care if the line which it is drawing is 
to be thin, there is much less labor than in the case of smoked 
paper, considering also the fact that one record yields a curve 
about a mile long. 

Balancing the levers. The relative weights of the several 
lever arms is as follows ; Lever I presses down at c, II at /, 
and III at i. By the help of a moveable weight attached to the 
smaller arm of III, the balance of the system is adjusted. If 
diseon>:eeted at the end c of the first lever, the remainder must 
be able b.v its own weight, and that of the adjustable w^eight on 



12 Bulleti7i of the University of Texas 

III, easily to overcome the friction of the pen moving upwards. 
After the system is joined again at c, the weight of lever I ought 
to overcome the friction of the pen moving downwards. In 
addition to this it nnist be heavy enough to keep the sapphire 
b, with a gentle pressure always in the groove of the record. A 
small weight which can be shifted along on I, helps to adjust 
this pressure. 

Magnification. The eones at c and d may be moved toward, 
and away from, the pivots a and e, so that almost any magnifi- 
cation of the breadth of the phonoglyphs may be obtained. With 
jewel bearings at h and c, magnifications up to 300 were quite 
correct, and the handling of the instrument was comparatively 
easy. Beyond this, however, no satisfactory results have been 
obtained thus far. This is due probably to the friction and 
imperfect adjustment of the bearings. With V-bearings at those 
points, larger and more correct magnifications are obtainable. 
Up to this time, not enough trials have been made to speak with 
certainty of an upper limit. For most purposes, however, an 
enlargement of 1 : 300 is quite sufficient. 

Ma.gnification of the length of the phonoglyphs is obtained by 
moving the surface of the writing drum faster than that of the 
record. By properly conecting them the tracing can be stretched 
out as long as desired. I have used mostly an enlargement of 
about 1 : 5. Since the movement of both, drum and record, is 
rather slow, I decided to join them directly with speed reducers, 
which consist of a set of cogwheels. Belts would be rather un- 
reliable at such a point. They are used only to connect the 
speed reducers with each other and with the motor. 

Horizontal and vertical enlargement have to be in a certain 
definite relation to each other in order to make a good curve. 
(See i;late II, A.) 

As the drum moves, a strip of writing paper, pressed against 
it by rubber rolls, is also moved along. Near the drum is a 
mechanical arrangement for unwinding the paper roll and wind- 
ing it up. (Fig. 7.) 

Revolution marker. In order to know exactly what length 
of paper represents one revolution of the record, I fixed four 
contact points, 90° distant from each other, on the shaft which 
turns the record. As they touch a brass strip, an electric circuit 



Enlargement of Phonograph Eecvrds 13 

is closed which contains a time marker at the drum. Thus 
every quarter revolution of the record is marked off on the 
paper. The distance from one mark to the fourth mark follow- 
ing measures one complete revolution. The whole of the paper 
is marked in this way in order to check the exactness of the 
eularaement as to the length, and to facilitate the analysis of the 
phonoeurves. 

To avoid all trembling and jarring, the motor is placed on a 
table by itself, while the instri;ment does not stand on the 
floor of the room, but on four concrete blocks reaching to the 
ground. 

ANALYSIS OF THE PHOXOCURVES 

A phonocurve contains the greatest part, if not all, of the 
phonoglyphs. We may therefore expect at least a representa- 
tion of what we hear when the record is reproduced in the usual 
way. Indeed, while analysing a phonociirve, we must contin- 
ually compare it with the reproduction of the record itself. Only 
thus can we avoid unwarranted speculations as to what the 
phonocurve means. This is one of the greatest advantages of 
this method of studying speech sounds. In analyzing a tracing 
of Krueger's Larnygograph, for instance, we must largely rely 
on our memorj^ for determining its contents. 

The first thing to do in studying a phonocurve, is to distin- 
guish and to mark off, pieces of it, as representing certain 
sounds. This is not at all easy. While listening to the repro- 
duction of the record we count its revolutions. At convenient 
places, especially where large pauses occur, we make a copy of 
the text and write down the number of revolutions thus far 
counted. Since the phonocurve is already divided by the time 
marker as described above, the strips representing certain sen- 
tences can then be found. In a similar way parts of the sentences 
are determined, and finally the beginnings and ends of the words. 
This procedure has to be repeated many times before we can 
tell exactly what part of the curve corresponds to a particular 
word. 

With the help of the phonetic script we trj' to represent the 
sound composition of words. The phonocurve is nothing but such 
a phonetic transcription with unfamiliar symbols or letters. It 



14 Bulletiji of the University of Texas 

has a high degree of exactness in some respects, and serious 
shortcomings in others. Certain consonants, the voiceless stops, 
cannot be seen directly at all. while others can be recognized only 
with difficulty. But the liquids and nasals, and especially all 
vowels, do appear very plainly. It is here that no phonetic 
script equals the phonocurve. Not the soimds are represented, 
but the sound waves, so that we get the composition of the 
individual sounds, as they change from wave to wave. Very 
seldom do we find a clear division between consecutive 
voiced sounds ; moreover, the form of a wave of a certain sound 
frequently is transformed gradually into the characteristic wave 
form of the following sound. (See plate II, B.) 

This makes the above-mentioned marking-off difficult, when 
a word ends in a voiced sound, and the nest word begins with 
one. Coming to the next step, the distinguishing of the sounds 
in a word, we are confronted with this difficulty even more fre- 
quently. One practical way to solve it is to follow up one wave 
form in one direction, and another form in the opposite (ap- 
proaching) direction, until we find a neutral point that can be 
claimed with probability by both sides. 

This determining of words and sounds is the elementary step 
of the analysis, and is indispensable to all further work. 

QuaHtative analysis. Qualitative analysis of phonoeurves is 
the richest field of investigation that is offered to the student 
of phonetics. The ear is not .sensitive enough to give an ac- 
count of certain facts of prououneiation that, nevertheless, can 
easily be noticed in the "objective" record of a gramophone disc 
or phonograph cylinder. E. W. Scripture has some interesting 
specimens of such analysis (Researches in Exp. Phon., 39 ff), 
but nothing on a larger .scale has been done so far. 

Quantitative analysis. Much work has been done in the quan- 
titative analysis of the phonoeurves. The study of the speech 
melody has been the favorite sub,Ject in this direction. (Cf. 
Peters, Vox., 1914, 180 ) The harmonic analysis of particular 
waves has also been studied by many, especially by Hermann. 
(Pfluegers Arehiv, XLV, XLVII, Llfl.) 



Enlargement of Phonograph Records 15 

REMARKS ON THE TRACINGS ON PLATES II AND III 

All tracings are to be read from right to left. Only those 
in II, B and C are continuous, that is, the left end of one line 
must be regarded as contimiing with the right end of the next 
line. 

In the horizontal direction Inim of the paper represents 
.000375seconds, except that part occupied by the fourth and 
second tracing in A on plate II, where lmm^.00093sec. 

The peculiar bending of the tracings is due to the fact that 
the surface of the record is not a perfectly true cylinder. 

The five tracings under A on plate II represent five different 
enlargements of the same phonoglyph. The first, third and fifth 
have the horizontal linear enlargement 1 : 5. The vertical en- 
largement has been changed in the third and the fifth by shift- 
ing the connection d on lever II closer to its fulcrum e. The 
change in the horizontal enlargement of the second and fourth 
were made by using a smaller pulley at the speed reducer con- 
nected with the record. 

Unfortunately the technique of reproduction did not do 
justice to all of the tracings. This is particularly noticeable 
in the phonocurves of the "i" on plate II. C and on plate III. 




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